Anatomy and Physiology (Respiratory, Integumentary and Reproductive systems)

Respiratory, Integumentary and Reproductive systems

Respiratory system– enables breathing (respiration) and consists of the lungs and air passages.

Lungs– spongy tissues composed of microscopic cells in which inhaled air is exchanged for carbon dioxide during one breathing cycle.

Diaphragm– a muscular wall that separates the thorax from the abdominal region and helps control breathing.

An exchange of gasses takes place with each breathing cycle—oxygen is absorbed into the blood, and carbon dioxide is expelled through the lungs.

Integumentary system

Made up of skin and various accessory organs (oil and sweat glands, sensory receptors, hair and nails)

Reproductive system

Performs the functions of reproducing and perpetuating the human race. Relevant sex hormones are testosterone in males and estrogen in females, as they affect skin functions.

Skeletal and Muscular systems

 

Bones of the skull

Occipital bone– the hindmost bone of the skull, forms the back of the skull and nape.

Parietal bones (two) – form the sides and crown of the cranium.

Frontal bone– forms the forehead.

Temporal bones (two) – form the sides of the head in the ear region.

Ethmoid bone– light, spongy bone between the eye sockets that forms part of the nasal cavities

Sphenoid bone– joins all the bones of the cranium together.

Bones of the face

Nasal bones (two) – form the bridge of the nose.

Lacrimal bones (two) – small, thin bones that comprise the eye sockets

Zygomatic or Molar bones (two)- form the prominence of the cheeks, or cheekbones.

Maxillae (plural, two) (maxilla is singular)bones- bones of the upper jaw

Mandible– forms the lower jawbone; the largest and strongest bone of the face

 

Bones of the neck

Hyoid (Adam’s apple)- a u-shaped bone at the base of the tongue that supports the tongue and its muscles.

Cervical vertebrae (7)- bones of the top part of the vertebral column, located in the neck region.

Bones of the chest

Sternum, Spine and 12 pairs of ribs

Bones of the shoulder, arm and hand

Humerus– the uppermost and largest bone of the arm, extending from elbow to shoulder.

Ulna– the inner and larger bone of the forearm (lower arm), attached to the wrist and located on the side of the little finger.

Radius– the smaller bone in the forearm on the same side as the thumb.

Carpus– the wrist, a flexible joint comprised of eight small, irregular bones (carpals) held together by ligaments.

Metacarpus– the palm, consisting of five long slender bones called metacarpal bones.

Phalanges– the bones in the fingers, three in each finger, and two in each thumb.

The muscular system

Striated muscle (skeletal or voluntary muscles) – attached to the bones, and are controlled by the will.

Nonstriated muscles (involuntary, visceral, smooth)- function automatically, without conscious will (ex/ digestive muscles, respiratory muscles).

Cardiac muscle– makes up the heart.

 

3 parts to each muscle- origin, insertion, belly

Origin– the part that doesn’t move

Insertion– the part of the muscle at the more movable attachment to the skeleton.

Belly– middle part of the muscle. Pressure in massage is usually directed from insertion to origin.

Muscular tissue can be stimulated by

-massage (hand or electric vibration)

-electrical current (high frequency or faradic current)

-light rays (infrared or UV)

-heat rays (heating lamps or heating caps)

-moist heat(steamers or moderately warm steam towels)

Nerve impulses (through the nervous system)

Chemicals (certain acids and salts)

 

Muscles of the scalp

Epicranius (occipito-frontalis)-broad muscle that covers the top of the skull; consists of two parts- occipitalis and frontalis.

Occipitalis– back of epicranius- muscle that draws the scalp backward

Frontalis– anterior portion of epicranius’ muscle of the scalp that raises eyebrows, draws scalp foreword and causes wrinkles across the forehead.

Aponeurosis– tendon that connects occipitalis and frontalis.

 

Muscles of the ear

Auricularis superior– muscle above the ear that draws the ear upward.

Auricularis anterior– muscle in front of the ear that draws the ear forward.

Auricularis posterior– muscle behind the ear that draws the ear backward.

 

Muscles of mastication (chewing)

Masseter and temporalis coordinate opening and closing the mouth.

Muscles of the neck

Platysma– broad muscle extending from the chest and shoulder muscles to the side of the chin. Responsible for lowering the lower jaw and lip (type of muscle exists in cats!)

Sternocleidomastoideus– muscles of the neck that lowers and rotates head.

Muscles of the eyebrow

Corrugators muscle– located beneath frontalis and orbicularis oculi that draws the eyebrow down and wrinkles forehead vertically.

Orbicularis oculi– ring muscle of the eye socket. Closes eyes.

 

Muscles of the nose

Procerus– covers the bridge of the nose, lowers the eyebrows and causes wrinkles across the bridge of the nose.

(other nasal muscles that contract and expand the openings of the nostrils)

Muscles of the mouth

Buccinators- thin, flat muscle of the cheek between upper and lower jaw that compress the cheeks and expels air between lips.

Depressor labii inferioris– AKA quadrates labii inferioris.  A muscle surrounding the lower lip that depresses the lower lip and draws it to one side.

Levator anguli oris- aka caninus. A muscle that raises the angle of the mouth and draws it inward

Levator labii superioris– aka quadrates labii superioris. Surrounding upper lip, elevates upper lip and dilates the nostril (as in expressing distaste)

Mentalis- elevates lower lip and raises and wrinkles the skin of the chin.

Orbicularis oris– flat band around the upper and lower lips that compresses, contracts, puckers and wrinkles the lips.

Risorius– draws the corner of the mouth to and back, as in grinning.

Triangularis– extending alongside the chin that pulls down the corner of the mouth.

Zygomaticus major and minor– muscles extending from the zygomatic bone to the angle of the mouth that elevate the lip, as in laughing.

 

Muscles that attach the arms to the body

Latissimus dorsi– broad, flat muscle covering the back of the neck and upper middle region of the back, controlling the shoulder blade and swinging movements of the arm.

Pectoralis major and minor– assist the swinging movements of the arm.

Serratus anterior– assists in breathing and raising the arm.

Trapezius– covers the back of the neck, and upper and middle region of the back; rotates and controls swinging movements of the arm

Muscles of the shoulder and arm

Biceps– produces the contour of the front and inner side of the upper arm; lift the forearm, flex elbow and turn palms outward.

Deltoid– large, triangular muscle covering shoulder joint that allows the arm to extend outward and to the side of the body. Triceps- covers the entire back of the upper arm and extends the forearm.

 

(forearm)

Extensors– muscles that straighten the wrist, hand and fingers to form a straight line.

Flexors– involved with bending the wrist.

Pronators– turn the hand inward so the palm faces downward.

Supinator- muscles that rotate radius outward (palm upward)

Anatomy and Physiology (Nervous System)

Nervous system

Central Nervous System (cerebrospinal system)- Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves (spine and cervical).  Controls all voluntary actions.

Peripheral Nervous System– connects outer parts of the body to the CNS, has sensory (motor) nerves, carries impulses (messages) to and from the CNS.

Autonomic Nervous System– involuntary muscles.  Regulates the actions of smooth muscles, glands, blood vessels and heart.

Brain– the largest and most complex nerve tissue in the body.  The brain is contained in the cranium and weighs an average of 44 to 48 ounces.  It controls sensation, muscles, glandular activity and the power to think and feel.

Spinal cord– the portion of the CNS that originates in the brain, etends down to the lower extremity of the trunk, and is protected by the spinal columns.  Consists of 31 pairs of spinal nerves etending from the spinal cord.

Neuron– nerve cell, primary structural unit of the nervous system.  Dendrites, nucleus, cell body, axon.

Dendrites– nerve fibers extending from the nerve cell that receive impulses from other neurons.

Axon– sends impulses away from the cell body to other neurons, glands or muscles.

Sensory (afferent) nerves- carry impulses or messages from sense organs to the brain.

Motor (efferent) nerves- carry impulses from the brain to the muscles.

Reflex– autonomic nerve reaction to a stimulation that involves the movement of an impulse from a sensory receptoralong an afferent nerve to the spinal cord, and a responsive impulse along an efferent neuron to a muscle, causing a reaction.

Anatomy and Physiology (Circulatory and Lymphatic systems)

Circulatory system

Made up of

Blood vascular system

Lymph vascular system

The heart

-responsible for keeping the blood moving within the circulatory system.

– enclosed by a membrane called the pericardium.

-about the size of a closed fist.

-right and left atrium are in the upper half of the heart.

-right and left ventricle are in the lower half of the heart.

-valves between chambers allow blood to flow in one direction only.

-pulmonary circulation sends blood from the heart to the lungs to be purified.

-systemic or general circulation carries blood from the heart throughout the body and back to        the heart.

Blood vessels– carry blood to and from the heart, and to and from various body tissues

Arteries– carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the capillaries.

Capillaries– small, connect small arteries to veins.  They bring nutrients to cells and carry away waste materials.

Veins– carry blood from capillaries back to the heart.

Lymph

–          Acts as an aid to the blood system.

–          Carries nourishment from the blood to body cells.

–          Acts as a defense against invading bacteria and toxins.

–          Removes waste material.

–          Provides a suitable fluid environment for the cells.

Anatomy and Physiology (Tissues)

Tissue

Types of tissues

Connective Tissue–  Supports, protects and binds together other tissues of the body.  (ex./ bone, cartilage, ligaments, tendons, fascia and adipose)

Epithelial Tissue–  Protective covering on body surfaces. (ex./ skin, mucous membranes, lining of the heart, respiratory organs, and glands)

Liquid Tissue–  Carries food, waste and hormones throughout the body.  (ex./ blood, lynph)

Muscle Tissue– contracts and moves various parts of the body

Nerve Tissue–  Carries messages from the brain and controls and coordinates all body functions.  Composed of specific cells called neurons, which make up all nerves, the brain and spinal cord.

Anatomy and Physiology (Composition of Blood)

Blood

Composition of blood:

Red blood cells (RBC)

White blood cells (WBC)

Plasma

Platelets

RBCs– (Erythrocytes) are produced in bone marrow.  Contain hemoglobin (a complex iron protein) which give blood it’s red color.  Carries oxygen to body cells.

WBCs (Leukocytes) destroy disease-causing germs.

Platelets (thrombocytes) contribute to the blood-clotting process (stops bleeding)

Plasma– the fluid part of blood in which RBCs, WBCs and platelets flow.  Carries nutrients to cells and carries waste products away from cells (carbon dioxide).  Contains sugars, proteins and oxygen.

Anatomy & Physiology (Intro & Cells)

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy– The study of structures of the body that can be seen with the naked eye.

Physiology– The study of functions and activities performed by body structures

Histology–  The study of science of the minute structures of organic tissues.  Microscopic anatomy—things that cannot be seen with the naked eye.

Cells

Protoplasm– Colorless, jelly-like substance in which proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts and water are present.

Nucleus–  Dense, active protoplasm.  Plays an important part in cell reproduction and metabolism.

Cytoplasm– Is all of protoplasm, except for the nucleus.  Waterey fluid contains food and water necessary for cell growth, reproduction and self-repair.

Cell membrane–  Encloses protoplasm, permits soluble substances to enter and exit cell.

Cell Reproduction–  Most cells reproduce by a process called “Mitosis”, in which one cell divides itself into identical ‘daughter cells’.

Cell Metabolism

 Anabolism– Constructive build up of larger molecules from smaller ones

Catabolism– Complex compounds are broken down into smaller ones.  Releases energy that is stored by special molecules to be used in muscle contractions, body secretions and heat productions.